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  • In the present study DRD decreased in the VTA of

    2019-07-19

    In the present study, DRD3 decreased in the VTA of OA when compared with the control group. It is reported that DRD3 in the VTA control the firing rate of dopaminergic neurons and inhibition of these receptors enhance firing in the VTA-projecting neurons [18]. A study also indicated that morphine treatment increased the DRD3 level in the midbrain region [42]. There is no explanation for the discrepancy at the moment. Moreover, the current study showed that DRD3 was down-regulated in the NAC of opioid abusers. Although, there were no differences between DRD3 mRNA expression level in stimulant overdose victims and the control group [43]. Some data indicate that DRD3 mRNA level in the NAC increased about six-fold among the cocaine abusers with the comparison to control group [40]. In the PET imaging study, DRD3 was also up-regulated in psychostimulant abusers [5]. The controversy over the present results may be related to the kind of drug of abuse. Rosen et al. [38] showed that DRD3 decreased in BLA in heroin treated rats. However, in the present study on human brain, DRD3 protein level did not change in the amygdala of OA when compared with the control group. There is no explanation for that and may need more future experiments. No change was observed in DRD4 level in the NAC of OA when compared with the control group. In the present study, it was found that DRs changed in the reward pathway of opioid abusers, and these changes depended on the PF-04620110 where region (Table 2).
    Conflict of interest
    Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the grant support from the Tehran University of Medical Science (93-02-87-26054). We are also immensely grateful to Mr. Naser Yeksan for his help in brain dissection and Ms.Monir Goudarzi for her help in data analysis.
    Introduction Pioneering neuroscience studies using Drosophila melanogaster have revealed that the brain is constructed with cellular and circuit mechanisms that promote forgetting (Davis and Zhong, 2017). The best-understood mechanism for active forgetting of olfactory memory at the circuit level involves the release of dopamine (DA) from dopaminergic neurons (DAns, forgetting cells) of the PPL1 cluster onto the axons of mushroom body neurons (MBns, engram cells). Forgetting cells exhibit chronic activity (Berry et al., 2012) that slowly promotes forgetting, but they are stimulated by sensory information and quieted by sleep (Berry et al., 2015). DA released from the forgetting cells stimulates a specific DA receptor, dopamine receptor expressed in mushroom bodies (Damb), required for normal forgetting (Han et al., 1996, Berry et al., 2012). This receptor mobilizes an intracellular signaling pathway that includes the scaffolding protein Scribble and its associated protein components, Rac1 and Cofilin, that may cause forgetting by reversing changes in the neuronal actin cytoskeleton that occur with memory formation (Davis and Zhong, 2017). Curiously, several studies have shown that DA released from the PPL1 DAns is also required for the acquisition of new, aversive olfactory memories (Schwaerzel et al., 2003, Schroll et al., 2006, Claridge-Chang et al., 2009, Aso et al., 2012). The current working model envisions the unconditioned stimulus (US) for olfactory classical conditioning as conveyed by DAn activation of the MBns. How DAn stimulation of MBns might lead to both acquisition and forgetting of olfactory memories can be partially explained by PF-04620110 where the existence of a second DA receptor, named dDA1, which, like Damb, is preferentially and uniformly expressed along the axons of the MBns, as revealed by light microscopic immunohistochemistry (Han et al., 1996, Kim et al., 2003). Mutants of dDA1 fail to acquire memory (Kim et al., 2007), consistent with a two-receptor model in which the dDA1 receptor mediates the acquisition of olfactory memories by MBns and Damb spurs forgetting (Berry et al., 2012).